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Abertay and Aston academics reassess the effectiveness of warship camouflage through visual perception research
Researchers from Abertay University and Aston University have found that World War One dazzle ships - boats painted in a type of camouflage pattern to make it difficult for enemies to identify and destroy - were not as effective as originally thought.
These ships were named after the ‘dazzle’ paint scheme characterised by its bold contrasts of patterns and colours applied at striking angles. The various geometric shapes were intended to confuse enemy submariners peering through periscopes, making it challenging for them to identify the ships and accurately assess their speed and trajectory.
The concept was developed during the First World War (1914-1918) when the British fleet faced the threat of German U-boats. Although test facilities for model ships were used on both sides of the Atlantic during the war, no quantitative data was recorded then.
The findings were detailed in the article "Dazzle Camouflage: Benefits and Challenges", published on Wednesday 4 December 2024 in the journal Royal Society Open Science. The authors created a computer model of the RMS Mauretania, which was converted into a troop carrier by the British government during World War One.
They applied a range of achromatic dazzle camouflage designs to the model and highlighted these visuals on computer screens from various angles. Sixteen participants were then invited to assess and indicate the direction they believed the ship was travelling.
When the research team reviewed the participants’ feedback, they found that those which included a texture gradient in the camouflage pattern were seen to twist away from their true direction, exactly as intended. However, they found that the benefits of the camouflage were diminished by what they called the ‘horizon effect,’ which causes the perceived direction to align with the horizon rather than the ship’s actual movement.
Their analysis revealed that these two effects interacted in a way that could either enhance or undermine the ship's concealment, depending on its actual direction. At times, the twisting dazzle camouflage would aid the ship by amplifying the perceptual horizon bias, making it harder for observers to accurately determine its course. Conversely, there were moments when the same effect could benefit an attacking submarine by diminishing the perceptual horizon bias, potentially allowing for easier targeting.
Dr George Lovell, Senior Lecturer in Abertay's Department of Sociological and Psychological Sciences, said:
Our findings highlight the nuanced nature of visual perception in maritime contexts. Notably, participants with more maritime experience were less influenced by the perceptual pull of the horizon. If this pattern holds true for enemy submarine captains, it indicates that dazzle camouflage could provide a strategic advantage. However, our computer simulations of torpedo attacks demonstrated that its effectiveness is mainly confined to fast-moving and distant vessels.
Professor Tim Meese from Aston University’s School of Optometry said:
If you ask me ‘did dazzle camo work?’, my answer is ‘yes - but the benefits from perceptual bias would not have been as valuable as the allied WWI navies would have liked!
The research paper was released just after it has been reported that Ukraine's navy has revealed a fresh paint job on some of its vessels, which appear to have adopted dazzle camouflage. In November 2024, the Ukrainian force shared images on social media showing versions of the paintwork.
Professor Meese commented:
Although dazzle camouflage fell out of favour between the wars, it is remarkable that the Ukrainian navy have recently shared images on social media where vessels are dressed in a form of dazzle. The precise purpose of this is not clear, but one expert supposed it might offer some protection against drones.
Dr Lovell added:
Human vision will not have significantly changed since 1918, so if it was fooled by dazzle then, it will be fooled now. The key question is whether targeting involves human perception and a prediction of future location. If a weapon (torpedo, missile, or drone) is visually aimed by a human, then a misperception of direction could still be key. If the drone uses AI trained on natural scenes, then it could still be fooled by forced-perspective cues.
The team’s study only looked at the impact of dazzle camouflage on the perceptual bias of direction. Dazzle was also thought to have other benefits, including introducing uncertainty about direction and uncertainty and biases for the distance and class of ship, which are both important for estimating speed. Good estimates of both speed and direction are needed for successful torpedo strikes, and these and other factors await scientific investigation.
This work builds on ongoing research at Abertay’s Visual Perception and Camouflage Lab, which investigates the underlying processes of visual perception and how camouflage disrupts them. The team employs a diverse range of techniques, from visual psychophysics and virtual reality to video games and behavioural studies involving animals.
